Us president woodrow wilson and his management theory. Short biography of Woodrow Wilson

Wilson Thomas Woodrow (1856-1924), 28th President of the United States (1913-1921).

Born December 28, 1856 in Stanton, Virginia, into the family of a Presbyterian preacher of Scottish-Irish descent.

In 1879 he graduated from Princeton University, studied law at the University of Virginia, in 1882-1883. practiced law in Atlanta, Georgia.

In 1883, Wilson entered graduate school at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore, Maryland, where he studied systems state power and history; in 1886 received his Ph.D. for the book "The Board of Congress" (1885).

From 1885 to 1888 he taught at Wesleyan University. In 1890 Wilson became professor of jurisprudence and political economy at Princeton University and later president (1902-1910).

As Governor of New Jersey (1911-1913), he carried out broad program progressive reforms and in 1912 he was elected president of the United States.

Wilson advocated maximum equality of opportunity for all citizens of the country and unrestricted US access to world markets; pursued an active policy aimed at strengthening American positions in the world. As part of the program of building a "new democracy", he carried out tariff and banking reforms (1913), achieved the adoption of antitrust laws (1914).

In 1916, Wilson was re-elected president.

After the outbreak of the First World War, he tried to act as a mediator between the European powers; achieved the entry of the United States into the war (1917); was one of the main authors of the Versailles Peace Treaty, for which he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize (1919).

In the fall of 1919, as a result of a strong overstrain, Wilson was paralyzed, and he was forced to stop active government activities.

He died on February 3, 1924 in Washington.

Woodrow Wilson

WILSON, THOMAS WOODRO(Wilson, Thomas Woodrow) (1856-1924), 28th President of the United States. Born December 28, 1856 in Staunton (Virginia) in a family of immigrants from Scotland; son of a Presbyterian priest. He spent his childhood in Augusta (Georgia). Studied at Davidson College in North Carolina (1873-1874) and Princeton University in New Jersey (1875-1879); received a bachelor's degree. In 1880 he entered the University of Virginia School of Law, after which he took up law practice in Atlanta, Georgia. From 1883 he was a graduate student at Johns Hopkins University (Baltimore, Maryland) with a degree in constitutional law and history. At the beginning of 1885 he published his first scientific work Rule of Congress: A Study of American Politics(Congressional Government: A Study in American Politics). In the same year he became a professor of history and political economy at Bryn Mawr College (Pennsylvania). In 1886 he received his doctorate. In 1888 he went to work at Wesleyan University (pc. Connecticut); wrote books State: Foundations of Historical and Practical Political Activity(State; elements of historical and practical politics; 1888) and Leaders of Humanity(Leaders of men; 1890). In 1890 he was invited to Princeton University as a professor of law and political economy; has established himself as a talented lecturer. In 1902 he was elected president of the university; advocated the modernization of the training system. In 1896 he published a biography of J. Washington ( George Washington), in 1902 - History of the American people(A history of the american people), in 1906 - Constitutional rule in the United States(Constitutional Government in the United States). He defended the idea of ​​a strong presidential power and US leadership in the world.

From 1906 he was considered by some circles of the Democratic Party as a possible candidate for the presidency. He nominated himself for the post of governor of New Jersey from the Democrats and in November 1910 won. During the period of governorship (1911-1913), he showed himself as a liberal politician, independent from the local bosses of the Democratic Party; achieved the adoption of a number of antitrust and anti-corruption laws in the spirit of T. Roosevelt, reformed the system of local primary elections (primaries), making them direct. At the Congress of the Democratic Party in Baltimore in June 1912, with the support of the Liberal wing, he was nominated as a presidential candidate. During the election campaign, he advocated a "quiet, bloodless revolution"; In his New Freedom program, he called for the liquidation of large corporations, the revival of free competition, the enhancement of the role of the state as a defender of public interests from attacks by private individuals, and the granting of voting rights to women. Won the presidential election on November 5, 1912, taking advantage of the split in the Republican Party. March 4, 1913 took over as head of the White House. In 1916 he was re-elected for a second term.

In domestic politics, he sought to strengthen state control over the economy. In 1913 passed through Congress an Act establishing a system of state federal reserve banks to regulate financial life USA, in 1914 - on the formation of the Federal Commerce Commission, designed to control trade relations between the states. He continued Thomas Roosevelt's course on limiting the monopolization of American industry; in 1914 he supported the Clayton Act, which prohibited large corporations from taking actions that impede the free exchange of goods within the country. Implemented significant tariff reductions on a wide range of imported goods and introduced progressive income tax(Underwood-Simpson law 1913); set eight o'clock working week, limited the use of child labor in production, legalized trade unions and peaceful forms of their struggle for their rights (strikes, picketing). He took a number of measures to improve the situation of farms.

In foreign policy, he proclaimed the refusal to use force in relations with other countries. He declared that the United States has no special interests in the Western Hemisphere, but at the same time its readiness to obstruct attempts to overthrow legitimate governments in Latin American countries. In January 1913, the US withdrew American troops from Nicaragua, settling relations with the government of A. Dias; in August 1914, secured the right for the United States to build a canal in Nicaragua connecting the Atlantic and Pacific oceans, and to establish military bases on its territory. Repeatedly made decisions to send American troops to the Caribbean to suppress anti-government riots (Haiti 1915, Dominican Republic 1916, Cuba 1917). Expanded US possessions in the West Indies, organizing the purchase of the Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917.

Priority was given to relations with neighboring Mexico. Refused to recognize the regime of General Huerta, established as a result of the coup d'état on February 18, 1913. As a result of the Veracruz incident on April 21, 1914 (the arrest of a group of American sailors) entered into open conflict with the Mexican government and sent American troops to Veracruz; demanded from Huerta to transfer power to the leader of the constitutionalists V. Carranse. After the fall of Huerta in July 1914, he withdrew American troops from Veracruz. In 1915 he rejected a proposal to intervene in Mexico to protect the interests of American oil companies. But in March 1916, in a situation of aggravated civil war between the Carrancians and the guerrillas of Villa and Zapata and the latter's more frequent attacks on the border regions of the United States, he sent an expeditionary force to Mexico; in February 1917, at the request of the government of V. Carranza, he was forced to evacuate him.

On Far East tried to prevent the expansion of Japanese expansion into China; advocated an "open door" policy there.

With the outbreak of the First World War, he declared the neutrality of the United States. However, attacks by German submarines on British ships carrying American citizens, especially the sinking of the steamer Lusitania in the summer of 1915, led to a sharp deterioration in relations between Germany and the United States. He agreed to lend to the military orders of the Entente countries. In December 1915, he proposed to significantly increase military spending; created a National Defense Council to guide the arms industry. At the same time, he undertook a number of efforts to end the pan-European massacre. In December 1916 he appealed to the belligerents with an appeal to cease hostilities and conclude a "peace without victory." After the start of an unlimited submarine war by Germany (February 1, 1917) broke with her on February 2 diplomatic relations and proclaimed "armed neutrality." The publication in late February of a telegram from German Foreign Minister Zimmermann (an attempt to provoke a Mexican attack on the United States) prompted him to declare war on Germany on April 6.

January 8, 1918 came out with a program of post-war settlement ("Wilson's Fourteen Points"), based on the principles of the liberation of all occupied territories, national self-determination of the peoples of Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire, the return of Alsace and Lorraine to France, the reduction of armaments, the creation of a "general union of nations", freedom of trade and navigation. After the victory of the Entente took Active participation in the Paris Peace Conference of 1919-1920 and the preparation of the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919; a member of the "Big Four" together with J. Clemenceau, D. Lloyd George and W. Orlando. He was the initiator of the creation of the League of Nations; headed the commission for the development of its charter. In 1919 he received the Nobel Peace Prize.

W. Wilson's international initiatives aroused strong opposition from isolationist circles in the United States. In August 1919, he suffered a serious political defeat in the Senate, the republican majority of which refused to ratify the Treaty of Versailles. In September 1919 he went on a tour of the country, intending to gain support for his foreign policy; On September 25, after a performance in Pueblo, Colorado, he felt unwell and had to interrupt the tour. On October 2 he suffered cerebral palsy. During the last seventeen months of his presidency, he was bedridden and practically did not engage in public affairs.

After the expiration of his term on March 3, 1921, he lived a private life in Washington, where he died on February 3, 1924. He was buried in the Washington National Cathedral.

Ivan Krivushin

Literature

Gershov Z.M. Woodrow Wilson. M., 1980
A.I. Utkin Woodrow Wilson's Diplomacy. M., 1989
Freud Z., Bullitt W. Thomas Woodrow Wilson. The 28th President of the United States: A Psychological Study. M., 1999
Davis D.E., Trani Yu.P. First Cold War. Woodrow Wilson's Legacy in Soviet-American Relations. M., 2002
Mardaliev R.T. Woodrow Wilson: Political Views, legal reforms and the League of Nations project. SPb, 2002

Thomas Woodrow Wilson, educator and 28th President of the United States, was born into a Scottish family in Staunton, Virginia. He was the third of four children and the eldest son of Presbyterian priest Joseph Ruggles Wilson and Janet Woodrow. Father V., pious and scientist, devoted a lot of time to raising his son.

In 1875, Mr .. V. entered the College of New Jersey (later transformed into Princeton University), where he studied the theory of the state. After graduating from college in 1879, he opened a law practice, but soon took up scientific work in history at Johns Hopkins University. In 1885, V. married Ellen Louise Exxon, who bore him three daughters. Having published his work "Board of Congress" - an analysis of American legislative practice, V. in 1886 received his Ph.D.

V. taught at Bayan Moor College and the University of Walesley, and in 1890 he became professor of law and political economy at Princeton University. V. gained fame thanks to his bright eloquence and inspired lectures, which were read as if impromptu. In 1902, the board of trustees unanimously elected him president of the university.

In this post, V. demonstrated all the strong and weak sides, which later also characterized his policies. He revised curriculum, changed the system of incentives, raised the level of training. Convinced of the need individual training, V. introduced a system of small discussion groups. Deepening the reform, in 1907, Mr .. V. planned to divide students into colleges, but the opposition forced him to abandon this plan. In 1910, after another conflict with the trustees, V. resigned.

At the same time V. accepted the offer to nominate a candidate for the election of the governor of New Jersey from the Democratic Party. To the surprise of professional politicians, he won by perhaps the most impressive margin in the history of the state. With his energetic assistance, the Legislature has carried out important reforms; laws were adopted on primary elections, on corruption, on the debts of entrepreneurs, on public enterprises. V.'s meteoric rise brought him nationwide fame. At the 1912 Democratic Party convention he was nominated as a presidential candidate; in elections in November of the same year, V. defeated the Republican candidate and became president of the United States.

Being a southerner and sharing many prejudices against people of color, V. nevertheless took steps to enlist their support in the elections. Negro leaders, including W. Dubois, could not help but pay attention to V.'s statement against racial discrimination. The call for "honest business" brought V. the votes of many northerners. It cannot be said that V. deceived the confidence placed in him, since he promoted more colored people to leadership positions than any of his Republican predecessors - Theodore Roosevelt or William Taft, but even during the First World War V. did nothing to cancel segregation in the troops.

Having come to power at the height of the progressive movement, V. adopted a program aimed at restoring free enterprise and abolishing special privileges. Under the influence of the president, Congress approved reduced tariffs, a graduated income tax, passed the Federal Reserve Act, and tightened control over business by the Federal Trade Commission. Before the elections of 1916, V. passed several laws on loans to farmers, on inheritance, on railways, achieved the allocation of funds for the construction of roads. These progressive measures heralded an increased role for the federal government in American life.

In the field of foreign policy, Britain took an anti-imperialist position. He tried to bring the spirit of justice, respect and good will... "It is extremely dangerous to shape foreign policy from the point of view of material interest," V. said in 1913. At W.'s proposal, Congress canceled the article of the treaty that exempted the United States from paying duties on the Panama Canal, V. also promised that the United States would not use the doctrine Monroe for intervention in Latin America. Unfortunately, it was during his leadership that American troops entered Nicaragua, Santo Domingo, Haiti, and Mexico. As a member of the American Peace Society since 1908, W. hoped to make the United States the leading defender of peace. He supported international arbitration, extended the treaties prepared by Eliu Ruth, and advocated the reduction of armaments.

From the very beginning of the First World War, Britain proclaimed a policy of neutrality and repeatedly tried to bring the belligerent parties at the negotiating table. In 1916, Mr .. V. was re-elected president, and on January 22, 1917 presented to Congress a plan for the establishment of peace by creating the League of Nations. Nine days later, Germany announced the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare. After German submarines torpedoed three American ships in March, V. convened a special session of Congress, where he recalled that the United States is "one of the main defenders of human rights." Proclaiming that "the right is even more valuable than peace", V. proposed declaring war, which was done on April 6, 1917.

Proceeding from the fact that the United States entered the war to prepare the world for democracy, Britain saw the new world order based on reason and mutual cooperation. On January 8, 1918, he outlined a 14-point peace program. The first five points included open diplomacy, freedom of navigation, equality in international trade, reduction of armaments, and reconciliation of colonial policy. The next eight points concerned the revision of borders based on the self-determination of peoples. The 14th paragraph provided for the creation of a "General Association of Peoples, which would give mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to large and small states."

In November 1918, Germany requested an armistice. In 1919, Mr .. V. and other representatives of the allied countries met in Paris to work out a treaty. In February, the commission unanimously approved the draft of the League of Nations. It became part of the Treaty of Versailles, signed in June. The newly created League of Nations proclaimed open diplomacy, registration of treaties, gradual reduction of armaments, declared a desire to prevent war through collective action, commitment to international arbitration; the headquarters of the League is located in Geneva (Switzerland). At the first meeting of the Council of the League on January 16, 1920, V.

Accepting the award, US Ambassador to Norway Albert G. Schmedemann read out V.'s address, which said: “Humanity has not yet rid itself of the unspeakable horror of war ... I think that our generation has made a remarkable step forward. But it would be wiser to assume that the work has just begun. It will be a long work. "

Despite all the efforts of V., the Treaty of Versailles did not justify the hopes for a post-war pacification. By ruinous reparations, forced confessions and unilateral disarmament, the treaty produced new wave militarism, which gradually led to a new world war in 1939.

Returning home in 1919, V. began to seek in the Senate the ratification of the Treaty of Versailles and the country's entry into the League of Nations. "There can be no question of us ceasing to be a world power, - explained V. - The question is whether we will give up the moral leadership that we are offered." The Republican-dominated Senate was divided into League supporters, moderate, demanding amendments, and irreconcilable. Deciding to appeal directly to the people, V. went on a trip to the states. Speeches, interviews and travel exhausted him, and at the end of September 1919 he fell ill, and on October 2 he suffered a stroke. Seven weeks later, he recovered enough to instruct the Democrats to reject the treaty amendments. However, in November, both versions of the treaty were voted down by the Senate.

In March 1920 g. public opinion forced the senators to return to the issue of the Versailles Treaty. Again V. lacked seven votes to two-thirds required for ratification. At the end of the year, the re-election to Congress finally buried the idea, it was revived only after the Second World War in the form of the United Nations.

V.'s health was undermined, and in 1920 he left his post. The former president settled in Washington, DC with his second wife, Edith Bolling Gault, whom he married on December 18, 1915, six months after the death of his first wife. Having suffered defeat on the issue of the League, V. nevertheless was sure that the future would confirm his correctness. "The world is ruled by ideals," he told his friend, "only fools think differently." In 1923, speaking on the radio in connection with the Armistice Day, V. called on the Americans "to abandon selfish motives and return to the highest ideals and goals of foreign policy." Three months later V. died in his sleep. A sword is carved on his grave, the handle of which is framed in the form of a cross.

V.'s policy became the subject of lengthy discussions. Internationalists and pacifists rejected the Versailles Treaty in connection with a departure from the principles of Britain, on the other hand, Germany suffered from excessively harsh peace conditions. Isolationists and moderates accused V. of allegedly ignoring his advisers in Paris, conducting secret negotiations, ignoring the interests of sovereignty, including the idea of ​​the League of Nations in the treaty.

Historians explain the failure

The draft of the League in the Senate with intolerance, dogmatism, V.

We should not forget about V.'s achievements. He had a clear idea of ​​the role of the president and skillfully used his rights. V. took office, having deep knowledge in the field of management, and ensured the adoption of reform laws. Remaining to the end the defender of disadvantaged Americans, V. tried to help the poor and abroad. V.'s all-conquering eloquence created a vision of universal peace and brotherhood among Western Europeans. For Europeans, Britain became a symbol of the human desire for improvement and for a world free from wars, injustice, and hatred. Despite the fact that the United States rejected moral leadership, proposed by V., his enduring merit is the establishment of the first world organization designed to preserve peace.

• Motylev Veniamin Volfovich

Keywords

annotation scientific article on history and historical sciences, the author of the scientific work - Motylev Veniamin Volfovich

Woodrow Wilson, 28th President, went down in US history as one of the greatest personalities. He had obvious successes in economic policy and great authority due to the preservation of US neutrality during the First World War. Wilson's program of progressive economic reforms envisaged lowering customs barriers in foreign trade, preparing and implementing tax reform, and creating the Federal Reserve System. At the beginning of the twentieth century. The United States has become the most developed country in the world. In 1919, Wilson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the idea of ​​organizing the League of Nations.

The US Presidents' programs. Woodrow wilson

Woodrow Wilson, the 28th President, was one of the outstanding personalities in the history of the USA. He achieved a great deal in economic policies and had a huge authority due to preserving the US neutrality during the First World War. Wilson's program of progressive economic reforms stipulated the reduction of customs barriers in external trade, the development and implementation of tax reform, and the establishment of the Federal Reserve System. In the early 20th century, the USA became the most developed country in the world. In 1919, Wilson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for the idea to set up the League of Nations.

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The text of the scientific work on the topic “Programs of US Presidents. Woodrow Wilson "

US PRESIDENTIAL PROGRAMS. WOODRO WILSON

President Thomas Woodrow Wilson - 28th President of the United States (1913-1921), winner of the 1919 Nobel Peace Prize, awarded to him for his peacekeeping efforts. He is also known as a historian and political scientist.

Born in December 1856 in the small town of Staunton, West Virginia, the son of a priest who also taught at the college, becoming a professor of theology and natural history. Thomas did well in school. In 1874 he graduated from Davidson College in North Carolina, where he showed an interest in history, literary work and public speaking... A year later, he attended Princeton University in New Jersey, where he majored in US history and organized a liberal club for debate and public speaking classes. In 1879, Wilson graduated from Princeton University and published a paper on the relationship between the executive and the legislature in the United States.

He then studied law for two years at the University of Virginia School of Law, went to work at the new High School in Baltimore, where he took up scientific work and wrote the book "Government of Congress", published in 1885 and became his doctoral dissertation. In this book, he explored how Congress in the United States shapes and controls government. In 1889 Wilson published his second book, The State, which was translated into several foreign languages.

In 1890 W. Wilson was invited to Princeton University as a professor to teach state law, history and theory of the state. He soon became Princeton's most popular professor. At the end of the 1890s. he began writing a five-volume History of the American People, which Senator G. Cabot Lodge helped him to publish. In 1902, Woodrow Wilson was unanimously elected President of Princeton University.

Princeton President

Historians consider the beginning of the twentieth century. in the United States as a very progressive period, when the education system, science, technology and culture became powerful sources of progress. Woodrow Wilson, knowing this, brought new teaching methods to the University of New Jersey. In addition to informative lectures by leading professors, he offered instructor-led seminars with student discussions, as has been the practice at other US universities. He was also involved in stimulating scientific research and difficult issues construction

and university funding. The authority and fame of Woodrow Wilson was so high that the leadership of the US Democratic Party nominated him for the post of Governor of New Jersey. In November 1910 he was elected governor by an overwhelming majority (54%).

State governor

Governor W. Wilson set three main objectives: to reorganize the state administration and reduce costs, equalize the tax burden and exercise control over corporations. The following important tasks related to the introduction of liability of entrepreneurs for injuries and accidents at workplaces, the suppression of corrupt practices during elections and the conservation of natural resources. He also advocated the introduction of public commissions for the regulation of tariffs in transport and in the field utilities, believing that the State Democratic Party must revive the rights of the people to participate in government. He presented these ideas at a party conference in mid-September 1910. The participants in the conference received him enthusiastically. It was clear that the governor was not only a prominent scientist - a specialist in management, but also a progressive politician who seeks to translate his ideas into reality. Moreover, the first months of his tenure as governor showed that he knows how to do it. He studied the theory and practice of public administration for many years, had the ability to foresee events, as well as the will and perseverance to achieve the set goals. State citizens are convinced that he is able to translate political theory into practical policy3.

Already in the first months of his work, the governor proved to the party bosses of the State Democratic Party, and first of all to “Sugar Smith”, who represented the interests of the sugar trusts, that he could not only refuse his support, but also put his “electoral machine” under the control of the administration. Moreover, Wilson demonstrated a determination to control other trusts throughout the state. Working conditions for women and children have been improved through legislation. After approval by the State Assembly in April 1911, the radical Jere-n Bill was signed by the Governor. Then the assembly approved the amendments to the income tax.

The governor's decisive course secured the support of a significant portion of the state's progressive Republicans. The public and press welcomed the emergence of a new political star on the Democratic horizon. They started talking about the new governor as a possible candidate for the presidency in the election campaign. In his second year as governor, Wilson began formal negotiations with the leadership of the Democratic Party.

Woodrow Wilson was initially dubious about the proposals of one-party members. However, as the 1912 election campaign flared up, he gained confidence in his success. Earlier this year, he spoke at a business meeting in Atlanta alongside incumbent President U Taft and ex-President T. Roosevelt, and made a stronger impression on the audience than they did.

The last three presidents (McKinley, T. Roosevelt and W. Taft) were Republicans, and the Washington carousel, as journalists called the US bipartisan system, was supposed to turn towards the Democrats. When a worthy rival to the Republicans appeared, voters naturally turned towards the progressive and radical Democrat Woodrow Wilson.

Meanwhile, at the Congress of the Republican Party in Chicago in the summer of 1912, a split occurred: part of the party supported the nomination of W. Taft for a second term, but T. Roosevelt "threw his hat into the ring", acting as Taft's rival. Not receiving the support of the majority of delegates, Roosevelt announced that he was creating a third party - the National Progressive - and held a separate congress of this party, which supported his nomination for the presidency of the United States.

The split in the Republican Party greatly facilitated the victory of Woodrow Wilson, who was actively involved in the election campaign for a seat in the White House. He had the support of party members and part of the progressive republicans. The main differences between Wilson's political program and the programs of Roosevelt and Taft were that he was a peaceful and pacifist politician, while they were distinguished by militancy and militarism (Taft, in addition, was even less progressive). In November 1912, Woodrow Wilson received 6.3 million votes in the elections, T. Roosevelt - 4.1, and Taft - 3.5 million. Roosevelt's motto was "New Nationalism", and W. Wilson's motto - "New Freedom "4.

Economic policy

Despite the fact that Wilson was only 2 years in the office of governor, he acted confidently in the White House, like a good administrator. Quickly formed a council of ministers. William Bryan was appointed Secretary of State, Secretary of the Treasury, i.e. William McAdoo became Secretary of the Treasury; Henry Stimson was appointed Secretary of War, replaced in 1914 by Ray Baker. Herbert Hoover became the Minister of Food, and Joseph Tumalty, who enjoyed great influence in the White House, was the President's personal secretary. The president's advisers were his close friend Colonel E. House and lawyer E. Bran-day, who later became a member of the US Supreme Court. Woodrow Wilson had a program of progressive economic reforms, the need for which was ripe. He confidently formulated this program:

lowering customs barriers in foreign trade, preparing tax reform and creating the Federal Reserve System5. Each of these tasks meant a lot in the country's economic policy.

Long years the United States was dominated by a protectionist customs system that protected industry from foreign competition. But at the beginning of the twentieth century. The United States has become the most highly developed country in the world. The time has come to lower customs barriers to international trade. President Wilson agreed with the chairman finance committee the Senate and other committees to support their proposal to reduce customs barriers. In early May 1913, the Tariff Cut Bill passed by an overwhelming majority in the House of Representatives. In September, the bill received support in the Senate and was signed by the President. Customs duties were reduced by an average of 10%, and some goods (wool, sugar, etc.) were completely exempted from tariffs. This provided the United States with cheaper imports of raw materials and finished goods.

The reform of the tax system consisted in the fact that the traditional excise (indirect taxes) and import tax were supplemented by the introduction of an income tax. At first, the income tax was small: only 1% was paid on income of $ 4 thousand per year. At that time, skilled workers, such as construction workers, and small businesses had such income. An income tax of 2% was imposed on an annual income of $ 20,000. However, during the First World War, the income tax was significantly increased and soon became the main federal tax to replenish the budget.

The third important direction in the economic policy of the W. Wilson government was the creation at the end of 1913 of the Federal Reserve System. During the preparation of the banking reform, President Wilson received the support of the influential senator, chairman of the banking committee, Carter Glass. Treasury Secretary Makadu and Presidential Adviser Brandeis were involved in drafting the bank reform bill. The law was approved by the Senate in December 1913. Under the new law, a Central Bank was created for the first time, which managed the country's 12 private reserve banks, regulated the banking system (private commercial banks) and issued banknotes. The rate of banknotes was guaranteed by the state, provided with a gold reserve and supported by the regulation of the issue of money. President Wilson believed that there should be strict government control over the national credit and banking system. The Federal Reserve played crucial role in its regulation in the United States since the economic crisis of 1913-1914. throughout the twentieth century. She is monitored every day around the world6.

The progressive economic reforms of the presidents T. Roosevelt and W. Wilson had a lot in common. Both sought to improve working conditions for workers, to reduce the working day to 8 hours, to ban child labour

and limit discrimination against women at work. On the whole, the economic policy of President W. Wilson was successful, as was that of President T. Roosevelt. They carried out a progressive economic program and sought to fulfill the promises made to the Americans.

Foreign policy

However, in the field of foreign policy, President Wilson largely disagreed with ex-President T. Roosevelt. Thus, he did not approve of Roosevelt's "big stick" policy, did not agree with the imperialist wars waged by McKinley and T. Roosevelt at the turn of the 20th century, was against the role of the United States as an international policeman, who, according to T. Roosevelt, had the right to punish other countries for " bad behavior". And who had the right to determine what is good and what is bad? As a democrat politician inclined to pacifism, W. Wilson tried not to interfere in the internal affairs of other countries, although he had his own opinion about their mistakes and miscalculations. Wilson tried to establish good neighborly relations with Latin America and Western Europe... But the “good neighbor” policy began to falter when relations with Mexico suddenly escalated.

In the middle of the second decade of the twentieth century. in Mexico there was a bourgeois revolution, the main issues of which were the agrarian and the nationalization of foreign investment. Power has changed many times. In 1911, the dictator Diaz was overthrown, the moderate reformist Madeiro came to power, and in 1912 there was a bloody coup by General Huerto, who became the new dictator. President Wilson considered Huerto's coup unconstitutional and his rule illegal. The revolution in Mexico continued, and in July 1914 Huerta fled the country. The constitutionalists took over the capital. V. Garranza became the head of the government, and General Fr. (Pancho) Villa.

Between the USA and Mexico in 1915-1916 the relationship went wrong. In the beginning there were border incidents, clashes in port cities. In April 1915, US warships entered the port of Vera Cruz in Mexico, where hundreds of Mexican soldiers and dozens of American sailors were killed in two days of fighting. In March 1916, Pancho Villa's squad invaded the state of New Mexico in the United States, many of its soldiers became marauders, robbing farmers and stealing horses. The United States conducted a retaliatory military operation. The US Army under the command of General J. Pershing pursued P. Villa's soldiers in northern Mexico. President Wilson believed that a major war would not bring glory to the United States. In 1917, Pershing's troops were deployed to Europe.

President Wilson proclaimed the right of nations to self-determination, but he violated this principle in Mexico, the Dominican Republic, and

Haiti. This is what Professor Brands wrote in his biography of W. Wilson. International law required a policy of non-intervention, which was violated not only by Wilson, but also by other US presidents.

Second term

In mid-1916, another presidential election campaign unfolded. The Democratic Party supported the nomination of W. Wilson for a second presidential term. He had obvious successes in economic policy and great authority for maintaining the neutrality of the United States during the outbreak of the First World War. He believed that most Americans did not want the United States to participate in the war. Wilson's penchant for pacifism drew attacks from militant Republicans, especially G.K. Lodge, W. Taft, as well as T. Roosevelt and his party of progressives. Wilson was also attacked by the left. For example, W. Brian was an extreme pacifist and parted ways with Wilson in 1915. During the 1916 election campaign, Wilson defended the principles of a "new freedom" and progressive reforms for Americans. At the same time, he put forward several slogans understandable to everyone: peace, preparation for defense, progressivism and prosperity (all these words began in English with P: peace, preparedness, progressivism, prosperity). Republicans supported the candidacy of the former governor's lawyer Charles Hughes, who largely disagreed with Wilson's progressive course and was not a supporter of radical reforms. In November 1916, voters made their choice: 9.1 million people voted for W. Wilson, and 8.5 million for Hughes. Compared to the 1912 elections, Wilson received 3 million more votes. Voters praised the progressive program: the Democratic Party in 1916 had a majority in both the House of Representatives and the Senate.

The first World War

In international relations, the focus of attention in 1915-1916. there was the First World War, which began in August 1914 and dragged into it the great powers of Europe - Germany, Austria-Hungary, France, England, Italy, Russian empire... President W. Wilson considered this war unnecessary and illegal, although liberal critics of imperialism considered the territorial redistribution of the world to be an inevitable result drastic change forces in Europe in favor of Germany to the detriment of England and France. It was a mistake not to see her inevitability. From the beginning of the war until the spring of 1917, Wilson maintained a policy of neutrality and was against US participation in it. But it was difficult to maintain a policy of neutrality when German submarines began to sink merchant ships delivering American cargo to England, France and other countries. In May 1915, a German submarine sank the large British passenger ship Luzitania en route from New York to Europe.

1,298 people died, of whom 128 were Americans. When asked to explain what had happened, Germany replied that she considered the seas around England a military zone in which the carriage of goods was prohibited. With this, US diplomats and politicians could not agree. Meanwhile, the German submarine fleet continued to sink ships carrying oil, food, uniforms and other goods. Several thousand Americans died before the government broke neutrality.

Of course, the United States understood the threat of war and prepared to defend the country. Back in 1915, the Wilson government adopted a military program for the production of weapons and the expansion of the US army. This program was allocated $ 500 million, which was a very significant amount at the time. It was planned to build 6 new battleships, 19 cruisers, 50 destroyers and 100 submarines. The army was strengthened by training 140 thousand officers. The call increased by half a million people. The Civil Guard conducted regular exercises and maneuvers. New types of weapons were mastered - tanks, aircraft, etc. W. Wilson explained to T. Roosevelt, who suggested organizing and leading a regiment of cowboy cavalrymen, that a world war is, first of all, a war of engines. Allied military orders helped the United States overcome the recession of 1914 and in 1915-1916. military production ensured the transition of the economy to recovery.

Meanwhile, in late 1916 and early 1917, Germany launched a submarine war against wars and merchant ships sailing across the Atlantic, including ships from neutral countries, forgetting their apologies and promises. She attacked American ships in the Atlantic. At the front, the German army used poison gas, killing civilians, used forced labor of prisoners of war. Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany proposed that Mexico recapture the states of Texas, New Mexico and Arizona from the United States. The Mexican government refused. In February 1917, a bourgeois revolution took place in Russia. Wilson was inclined to enter the war on the side of the Entente and the provisional bourgeois government of Russia. There was a heated debate in Congress in March and early April over the US entry into the war. The scales tilted more and more in favor of the United States entering the war. On April 6, 1917, after Wilson's speech, the US Congress declared war on Germany and military mobilization. According to the law on revolts and foreigners, the leaders of the American socialists (Y. Debbs and others) were arrested, and foreign Social Democrats were expelled by ship to Russia, including Leon Trotsky.

In June 1917, an additional 2.2 million US citizens were drafted into the army and navy. An additional $ 15 billion military Freedom Loan was issued. Navy and other departments increased orders for the production of weapons for the US Army and allies in Europe. In the summer of 1917, the first US divisions arrived in France, armed with new guns, tanks, aircraft, etc. Among

The Americans who fought in Europe were officers who later became presidents of the United States - Assistant Secretary of the Navy Colonel F.D. Roosevelt directed the delivery of arms to France on US ships, visited the trenches near Verdun, saying that the war was terrible; US artillery captain Harry Truman fought near Verdun; Major D. Eisenhower tested new tanks at test sites in England.

By the fall of 1917, more than 160 thousand American soldiers and officers were fighting in France, and in 1918 - 300 thousand soldiers. They fought bravely. In September bloody battles took place near Verdun. The German general Ludendorff wrote about the dark days that had set in for Germany. In November

1918 US Army in France increased to 1 million soldiers. There were battles on the Belgian border. The territory of France was close to liberation. Allied troops rushed into Germany. Heavy fighting was going on in the Rhineland. On November 9, 1918, Kaiser Wilhelm abdicated the throne and left for Holland. On November 11, 1918, the German government signed an armistice. Austria-Hungary requested an armistice even earlier.

Versailles Peace Conference

From January to June 1919, a peace conference took place at Versailles, near Paris. There were many disagreements between the United States, France and England, there was no understanding with Germany. It was a long, painful negotiation as the warring parties engaged in mutual accusations: who first started a terrible war in which more than 10 million soldiers and officers were killed. The German delegation called it a lie accusations that German troops were the first to use chemical weapons and commit other war crimes that cannot be justified under international law. For several months the German delegation did not sign the peace treaty. However, after the change of government in Berlin on June 23

1919, the new delegation finally signed the Treaty of Versailles, which required Germany to pay huge reparations and territorial concessions in favor of France (Saarland, Alsace and Lorraine). England also received territorial concessions.

President Woodrow Wilson, as the most respected world leader at the Versailles Conference, proclaimed his vision of a post-war world order - organizing the League of Nations for a lasting peace. Wilson formulated the famous "14 Points" program:

1. Open Peace Agreement.

2. Absolute freedom of navigation on the seas.

3. Lowering economic barriers between countries after the establishment of peace.

4. Reducing armaments to a minimum.

5. A just settlement of the colonial question.

The following points dealt with territorial disputes, including in Russia, France, Belgium, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and in other countries.

Considering the principles of international law, Wilson emphasized that every country, large or small, has the right to sovereignty. International law must guarantee the territorial integrity and political independence of the countries of the League of Nations (Art. 10). It was declared that self-determination and sovereignty is the right of every state as a member of the League of Nations9. This program contained many truths from the theory and practice of international law, without which there could be no lasting peace. They sounded great, but, unfortunately, they had a lot of good wishes.

It is not without reason that members of Congress, Republicans and some US historians, called President Wilson a dreamer. We can partly agree with them. But the president was at the same time a realist politician. Wilson inscribed his name in history by preparing the principles for organizing the League of Nations. He warned that if they were not followed, then in 20 years a new world war would begin. And in this, alas, he was right.

In September 1919, Woodrow Wilson toured the United States to address the decisions of the Versailles Conference. In 22 days, he traveled 8 thousand miles and made 33 speeches. However, the trip ended tragically: on September 25, in the mountains of Colorado, the president suffered his first stroke. Returning to Washington on October 2, W. Wilson suffered a second stroke, which paralyzed left side body. Due to a serious illness, Woodrow Wilson was practically unable to lead the country in Last year his presidency. The state was ruled by the Presidential Administration - the government. For several months, the President's personal secretary, D. Tumalty, and the President's second wife, Edith (Helen's first wife died of infection in August 1914), brought him legislative drafts and he signed with a trembling hand. US Vice President Thomas Marshall refused to serve as president, not considering himself competent to do so10. In January 1920, President Wilson began to get out of bed, move in a gurney, and sometimes received ministers at the White House. He continued to insist on congressional approval of the Versailles Peace Treaty. Republicans G.K. Lodge, Ruth, Taft and others proposed a new edition of the treaty and amendments to Art. 10 of the Versailles Peace Treaty, but the President did not accept their amendments. Biographers believe that illness prevented him from completing the editing of the peace treaty and agreeing it with the Republican senators. To approve the project, it was necessary to get two-thirds of the votes in the Senate. The Senate voted twice for the Versailles Peace Treaty drafts - in November 1919 and in March

the reign of the next president, W. Harding.) Unfortunately, the draft League of Nations treaty was not ratified by the United States at all. The next two Republican presidents believed that the Supreme Court in The Hague was more important than the League of Nations.

In the spring and summer of 1920, President Wilson was already getting up from his chair, walking with a stick. In mid-April, he periodically attended ministerial meetings in the White House, discussed some issues of domestic and foreign policy, sometimes made short speeches written by his hand. It is important that he continued to oppose the US intervention in Soviet Russia, where there was a civil war. The historian Hackscher wrote about this in the biography of W. Wilson11.

In 1919, President Woodrow Wilson was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his idea of ​​organizing the League of Nations.

Wilson tried to participate in political life in the country, to influence the outcome of the presidential elections in November 1920, but the balance began to tilt in favor of the Republicans. In November 1920, Republican W. Harding won the presidential elections with 60% of the vote, while Democrat J. Cox - only 40%.

V. Wilson lived for more than three years. He was visited by friends, former ministers and colleagues. Among them was Franklin D. Roosevelt, who discussed political and health issues with him. Subsequently, President F.D. Roosevelt embodied many of the ideas of the League of Nations in the United Nations (UN) project. Woodrow Wilson died in February 1924. He went down in history as one of the most prominent presidents of the United States.

Notes (edit)

1 Cooper J., Wilson W. A Biography. N.-Y., 2009. Pp. 110-115.

2 Ibid. Pp. 125, 136, 143.

3 Ibid. Pp. 122, 136.

4 Brands H.W Woodrow Wilson. N.-Y. 2003. P. 23.

5 Ibid. Pp. 27-30.

6 Ibid. Pp. 34-37.

7 Cooper J. Op. cit. P. 322.

8 Brands H. Op. cit. Pp. 58, 77.

9 Cooper J. Op. cit. P. 422; Leavell J.P. Woodrow Wilson. N.-Y. 1987. Pp. 15, 76 ..

10 Hecksher A. Woodrow Wilson. A Biography. N.-Y. 1991. Pp. 535, 575.