Scientists have recreated the faces of people who lived many centuries ago, and this is not what we are used to in textbooks. University Entry Guide

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Like many centuries ago, every Tuesday and Saturday peasants bring vegetables, fruits, cheese and flowers to the capital. Slightly less often, specialized markets open in Bern, for example, onion, folk crafts or a market where you can buy second-hand clothes. And in May, only geraniums are traded on Bundesplatz.

In general, flowers are a matter of special pride for Bernese people. Since the beginning of the last century, the city has held the title of "the most floral in Europe". Perhaps that is why the mythical Blumenstrasse appeared precisely in Bern. The Swiss entourage of the film "Seventeen Moments of Spring" was filmed in one of the East German cities. However, there is no Russian who would not try to find this same Flower Street in Bern. Almost everyone here is like her. This once again speaks of the closeness of German culture and the culture of the German-speaking part of Switzerland.

There is in Bern and Rosengarten, a garden of roses. A wonderful view of the capital opens up from here. Traveling around the country in 1779, Goethe noticed that Bern was the most beautiful proud he had ever seen. Queen Elizabeth II of England, during her stay in Bern, exclaimed in her hearts: "Switzerland is paradise!" And one cannot but agree with this.

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When we want to know what people of the past looked like - not only the era before photography, but also prehistoric times - we only have vague photographs of skeletons and occasionally portraits of artists who did not yet know the techniques of painting, so such paintings look a little more childish.

Many artists, having only descriptions of their contemporaries, tried to reproduce the image of this or that historical figure on canvas, but they can hardly be considered reliable. Science comes to our aid, which has reached such heights that it can recreate, for example, the facial features of a person who lived in the Middle Ages from the surviving remains. And thanks to this, we learn that the usual images in textbooks are at odds with reality.

Henry IV, King of France

He ruled France from 1589 to 1610 and was assassinated by the Catholic fanatic François Ravallac. He was nicknamed Henry the Great because he cared about the welfare of his subjects. The 3D forensic facial reconstruction was recreated based on his skull.

Process of creation.

Ava

Ava died about 3,700 years ago, during the Bronze Age. Her remains were found in an unusual burial for that time - the grave was dug in solid rock, and not in the ground, which was typical for other burials of that period. Scientists have suggested that the woman was playing important role in the life of society.

500-year-old Dubliner

In 2014, archaeologists discovered the remains of a man who died about 500 years ago. He was one of four people whose skeletons showed signs of chronic malnutrition and heavy physical labor. This suggests that the deceased were poor people. One of the skeletons has a skull, which was used for reconstruction.

Johann Sebastian Bach

One of greatest composers of all times and peoples lived and worked in the 17th-18th centuries. Scottish anthropologist Carolyn Wilkinson measured Bach's facial bones and recreated the composer's face as it should have looked.

Meritamon

The daughter of Pharaoh Ramses II and his beloved wife Nefertari died about 2000 years ago. Scientists from the University of Melbourne on the skull determined that she was from 18 to 25 years old, her height was about 162 centimeters, a thin build. It was not possible to determine the cause of death, since the rest of the mummy's body was never found.

Nicolaus Copernicus

One of the brightest mathematicians and astronomers of the Renaissance, Copernicus created a model of the universe with the sun at the center, not the earth. He died at the age of 70.

(but it is not exactly)

DNA tests revealed that the mummy, known as the "Young Lady," belonged to Akhenaten's sister and Tutankhamun's mother. Although there is still controversy about her identity, many believe that she is Queen Nefertiti. Paleo artist Elizabeth Denis has recreated a bust of an Egyptian ruler.

Maximilian Robespierre

He was a French politician and lawyer known for his role in the French Revolution and the Age of Terror. Robespierre was executed by guillotine on July 28, 1794 at the age of 36.

Scientists used his death mask and the surviving medical history of the revolutionary to reconstruct his face and determine what diseases he suffered from.

His contemporaries wrote about vision problems, every night Robespierre had nosebleeds, bile spills ("yellow skin and eyes"), asthenia ("constantly tired"), non-healing leg ulcers and frequent illnesses skin, smallpox scars. Historians believe he suffered from sarcoma. Also, his mouth and eyes were constantly twitching. Symptoms worsened by 1794. The day before the execution, Robespierre was shot in the jaw under unexplained circumstances.

Jane of Jamestown

The 14-year-old girl was eaten by her neighbors in the 17th century in Jamestown, the first English settlement in the New World. In 2012, her mutilated skull and torn leg bone were found among the remains of livestock in the basement. Douglas Owsley, chief forensic anthropologist at the National Museum of Natural History, examined the girl's bones and determined that the cuts and marks on them were left after inept attempts to separate the meat and the brain. The first settlers suffered from famine in Jamestown in the winter of 1609-1610.

Saint Anthony of Padua

Catholic priest Anthony of Padua was born in 1195 into a noble family in Lisbon. He died at the age of 35 in Padua, Italy. His contemporaries commented on his boundless devotion and love for the poor and sick, as well as his preaching. Anthony became one of the fastest canonized people in church history. In 2014, a team of researchers at St. Anthony University recreated his face using the saint's skull.

Mary Stuart, Queen of Scots

She ruled Scotland from 1542 to 1567, and inherited the throne when she was six days old. Mary spent 18 years in custody by order of Queen Elizabeth I of England. In 1586, she was executed on charges of conspiracy against the queen of England... She was 44 years old. Scientists from the University of Dundee have collected all the available portraits of Mary Stuart and recreated her face as she should have looked during her reign.

Richard III

He was King of England from 1483 to 1485. Was significant figure in the War of the Oz and the Battle of Bosworth, the last decisive battle between Lancaster and York, during which he died. At the time of his death, Richard was 32 years old. His remains were lost over five centuries and were only discovered in 2012. The skeleton was found to have traces of severe scoliosis, 11 wounds, nine of which were on the skull.

Arish

Arish lived in Carthage (on the territory of modern Tunisia) 2500 years ago. At the time of his death, he was between 19 and 24 years old. Using the methods of forensic science and dermatoplasty, scientists managed to recreate what Arish looked like during his lifetime.

Robert Burns

The famous Scottish poet died at the age of 37 in Dumfries. Scientists used Burns's skull to create a 3D reproduction of the poet's face.

Robert I Bruce

The King of Scotland ruled from 1306 until his death in 1329 and was one of the most celebrated warriors of his time. To this day, Robert the Bruce is considered a national hero in Scotland as he liberated the country from English rule.

THEME No. 6"Transfusion tasks"

Transfusion tasks are one of the older types of tasks. They appeared many centuries ago, but they still arouse interest among lovers of mathematics and they can often be found in olympiad tasks for grades 5-6. However, this type logical tasks it is advisable to consider with middle-level students (grades 7-8).

The essence of these tasks boils down to the following: having several vessels of different volumes, one of which is filled with liquid, it is required to divide it in some ratio or pour out some part of it with the help of other vessels for the least number of transfusions.

In transfusion tasks, it is required to indicate the sequence of actions in which the required transfusion is carried out and all the conditions of the task are met. Unless otherwise stated, it is believed that

All vessels without division,

Do not pour liquids "by eye"

It is impossible to add liquids from anywhere and drain anywhere.

We can tell exactly how much liquid is in the vessel only in the following cases:

we know that the vessel is empty,

we know that the vessel is full, and in the problem its capacity is given,

the problem gives how much liquid is in the vessel, and no transfusions were made using this vessel

two vessels participated in the transfusion, in each of which it is known how much liquid was, and after the transfusion, all the liquid was placed in one of them

the transfusion involved two vessels, in each of which we know how much liquid was, the capacity of the vessel into which it was poured is known, and it is known that all the liquid did not fit into it: we can find how much of it remained in the other vessel.

Most often, a verbal solution is used (i.e., a description of the sequence of actions) and a solution method using tables, where the volumes of these vessels are indicated in the first column (or row), and in each next column - the result of the next transfusion. Thus, the number of columns (other than the first one) indicates the number of transfusions required.

Let's consider the tasks.

Problem number 1.Measure 3 L with a 5 L vessel.

What is the smallest number of transfusions required in order to pour 3 liters of water into a four-liter saucepan using a tap and a five-liter jar?

Solution:

Pour the pan.

Pour water from the pan into the jar.

Pour the pan.

Top up the full jar, and 3 liters remain in the pan.

Problem number 2. Winnie the Pooh and the Bees.

Once Winnie the Pooh wanted to eat honey and went to visit the bees. On the way, I picked a bunch of flowers to give the bees to the workers. The bees were very happy when they saw a bear with a bouquet of flowers and said: “We have a large barrel of honey. We will give you honey if you can pour yourself 4 liters with the help of two vessels with a capacity of 3 liters and 5 liters! " Winnie the Pooh thought for a long time, but still managed to solve the problem. How did he do it?

Solution:

How can you get 4 liters as a result? It is necessary to pour out 1 liter from a 5-liter vessel. But how to do it? You need to have exactly 2 liters in a 3-liter vessel. How do I get them? - Pour 3 liters from a 5 liter container.
The solution is better and more convenient to draw up in the form of a table:

Fill a 5-liter vessel with honey from a barrel (1 step). From a 5-liter vessel, pour 3 liters into a 3-liter vessel (step 2). Now there are 2 liters of honey left in the 5-liter jar. Pour honey from a 3-liter vessel back into the barrel (step 3). Now, from the 5-liter vessel, pour those 2 liters of honey into the 3-liter vessel (step 4). Fill a 5-liter vessel with honey from a barrel (step 5). And from a 5-liter vessel we add honey to a 3-liter vessel. We get 4 liters of honey in a 5-liter vessel (step 6). The problem has been solved.
The search for a solution could begin with the following action: add 1 liter to three liters. But then the solution will look like this:

Problem number 3. Batman and Spider-Man.

Batman and Spider-Man could not determine which of them was the most important superhero. What they did not do: push-ups, run 100 meters, pull themselves up - one will win, then the other. Without resolving their dispute, they went to the sage. The sage thought and said: “The most important superhero is not the one who is stronger, but the one who is smarter! The one who solves the problem first will be the best! Listen: there are two vessels with a capacity of 8 liters and 5 liters. How to pour 7 liters of living water from the source with the help of these vessels? " Help your favorite hero solve this problem.

Solution:

The line of reasoning is as follows:
How do you get 7 liters as a result? - It is necessary to add 2 liters to 5 liters. Where can I get them? - Pour 3 liters from a 5 liter container. How do you get them? Pour into an 8-liter from a 5-liter 5 liters, then three more.
The solution to the problem is shown in the table:

Problem number 4.New milk.

A 10 liter can filled with fresh milk. It is required to pour 5 liters of milk from this can into a seven-liter can, using a three-liter can.

Solution:

We will write down the "steps" of transfusions in the form of a string of three numbers.

In this case, the vessels are placed from left to right in decreasing order of their capacity:

Problem number 5.Division of 10 liters equally, having vessels of 3, 6 and 7 liters.

Divide into 2 equal parts the water in the 6-liter vessel (4 L) and the 7-liter vessel (6 L) using these and the 3-liter vessels. What is the smallest number of transfusions required?

Solution:

In brackets - the second solution.

Problem number 6. Milk from Prostokvashino.

Uncle Fyodor was going to visit his parents and asked the cat Matroskin for 4 liters of buttermilk milk. And Matroskin only has 2 empty cans: three-liter and five-liter. And an eight-liter bucket filled with milk. How can Matroskin pour 4 liters of milk using the existing vessels?

Solution:

Pour 5 liters of milk from an 8 liter bucket into a 5 liter bucket. Pour 3 liters from a 5 liter can into a 3 liter can.
We now pour them into an 8-liter bucket. So, now the 3-liter bucket is empty, the 8-liter bucket contains 6 liters of milk, and the 5-liter bucket contains 2 liters of milk.
Pour 2 liters of milk from a 5 liter can into a 3 liter can, and then pour 5 liters from an 8 liter bucket into a 5 liter can. Now in an 8-liter 1 liter of milk, in a 5-liter - 5, and in a 3-liter - 2 liters of milk.
Add a 3-liter can from a 5-liter can and pour these 3 liters into an 8-liter bucket. The 8-liter bucket now has 4 liters, the same as in the 5-liter can. The problem has been solved.

After the transfusion, it turned out, 4 liters of milk in 8-liter and 5-liter vessels, and this was required.

Problem number 7.Collect 7 liters of water from the river.

At the foot of a high hill, on the bank of a quiet river, there was a small aul. There lived two brothers-hunters. The elder brother's name was Kaalka, the younger Kopchon. The elder brother sends the younger one for water and gives him two waterskins, with a capacity of 8 liters and 5 liters, and asks to bring exactly 7 liters of water. Will Kopchon be able to fulfill his older brother's request?

Solution:

Problem number 8. Tom Sawyer.

Tom Sawyer needs to paint the fence. He has 12 liters of paint and wants to pour half of this amount, but he does not have a vessel with a capacity of 6 liters. He has 2 vessels: one with a capacity of 8 liters, and the other with a capacity of 5 liters. How to pour 6 liters of paint into an 8 liter vessel? What is the smallest number of transfusions needed to do this?

Solution:

Problem number 9. Spongebob.

SpongeBob urgently needs to pour 6 liters of water from the tap. But it has only two vessels, a 5-liter and a 7-liter one. How can he do it?

Solution:

Vector solution of transfusion problems

A significant disadvantage of the tabular solution is the lack of a clear algorithm of actions, the inability to foresee the next steps. It is possible to compile such tables for quite a long time without arriving at the desired result.

Ya.I. Perelman in the book "Entertaining geometry". For each case, it was proposed to build a billiard table of a special design, the lengths of two sides of which are numerically equal to the volume of two smaller vessels. Further, from an acute angle of this table along one of the sides, you need to "launch" a ball, which according to the law "the angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection" will collide with the sides of the table, thereby showing the sequence of overflows. There is a scale on the sides of the table, the graduation value of which corresponds to the selected unit of volume. As a result of the movement, the ball either hits the side at the desired point (then the problem has a solution), or does not hit (then it is considered that the problem has no solution).

Let us offer another way to solve transfusion problems - using vectors. Let's construct a rectangular coordinate system xOy (only the first quarter is required for the solution). On the Ox axis, mark the points whose coordinates are multiples of the volume a of one of the two smaller vessels. Through the marked points we draw lines with a dotted line x = a, x = 2 a, ..., x = k a.
These straight lines will show us that the vessel with volume a is full and needs to be emptied. On the Oy axis, we mark a point whose coordinate is numerically equal to the volume of the second of the smaller containers, that is, b. Let's draw a dotted line y = b through it, which will help us determine the points of the next filling of the second vessel. The filling of the container, the volume of which is marked on the Oy axis, will be shown by vectors directed vertically downward. The overflow from this vessel into the one whose volume is indicated on the Ox axis will be represented by vectors directed diagonally downward. Finally, the emptying of the last container will appear as a vector pointing vertically upwards. For control, next to the ends of the vectors, we will write down the remainder or what has been poured. If the required number is obtained on the Ox axis, then this is the amount of liquid accumulated in a vessel of volume a, if it turns out to be on one of the vertical lines, then the required value is in a vessel of volume b. The drawn vectors are sequential steps in solving the problem.

For example, let's solve the problem:
Divide the contents of the full 12 bucket barrel in half using the 9 and 7 bucket barrels.

Let's construct a rectangular coordinate system as described above. The vertical vector pointing down towards mark 9 is the first step: filling the 9-bucket drum. Vector 9-2 diagonally downwards - pouring water from a 9-bucket into a 7-bucket barrel. Mark 2 means there are 2 buckets of water left in the middle (9-bucket) barrel. Since the smaller container is full (we have reached the dotted line), it should be emptied, that is, pour the contents into a 12-bucket barrel - the vector is directed vertically upward. The next move is to pour the remaining 2 buckets of water in the middle barrel into the smaller one (vector 2–2). Since the vector points to the Ox axis, this means that the 9-bucket barrel is empty, it needs to be refilled (the vector is directed vertically down to mark 9). Continue using the middle barrel to fill the smaller one (the vector diagonally), evaluating each time one of them is filled with the contents of the other and indicating the remaining number of buckets near the end of the vector. Continuing to act in this way, we soon find the necessary 6 buckets of water in the middle barrel. This problem can be solved differently by swapping the designations for the 7- and 9-bucket barrels on the coordinate axes. Then the solution is reached with more steps.

How on their eyes filled with life-giving juice still one Pavlik Morozov. But in any... many small, last from them - Finnish. All wars ended victoriously, and the losses were silent. Before these since ...

Among Islamic leaders in Russia, there are also supporters of this terrible tradition.

One of the barbaric customs that Egypt inherited from the time of the pharaohs is female circumcision. The previous regime actively fought against him, the Islamists who came to power are loyal to him. But the worst thing is that most of Egyptians support this bullying of women. True, educated Egyptians are increasingly becoming opponents ancient rite... Lilia Akhmadeeva, a Kazan journalist who moved to the country of pyramids, tells about this in her material written specially for "BUSINESS Online".

VOLUNTARY SACRIFICE OF EGYPTIAN WOMEN

Writing on this topic is difficult and inconvenient, because it is associated with the intimate side of life and anatomical details. That is why the problem is not widely discussed in Egyptian society and the media. This is taboo. Although it is time for the conscious Egyptians to shout and trumpet about her at all angles. At least, since I am writing about the land of the pyramids, I consider it unfair to bypass it. It is about repulsive ancient custom female circumcision, which is still widely practiced on the banks of the Nile.

Many experts believe that the term "circumcision" is a euphemism, and much more accurately sounds like "female genital mutilation". Egypt is one of the leaders in the world in terms of the number of rituals performed. Statistics show that in the country of pyramids, about 90% can be cut married women... The consequences of the "operation" in most cases is the loss of a woman sexual sensitivity, often - health problems (physiological and psychological), difficulties with childbirth, and sometimes death.

WHAT IS FEMALE CIRCUMCISION AND WHERE DOES IT APPEAR?

This custom originated not in any particular culture, but in several at once. According to the scientist David Gollagher, President of the California Institute of Health and author of the book "Circumcision", the practice of female genital mutilation is widespread throughout the world and is characteristic of both Aboriginal Australia and many African peoples. The main purpose of the ritual is to control female sexuality, as well as initiation during adult life... According to one version, slaves were also subjected to the practice. Ancient Rome to suppress their "natural instincts to reproduce." Some sources claim that such a custom existed in Ancient egypt... This is evidenced by the work of the Greek philosopher Strabo who visited Egypt in 25 BC. According to Discovery News, he wrote in his multivolume Geographica: “The Egyptians most zealously observe the custom of circumcision of every born boy and girls. " According to other historical sources, girls were circumcised only if their genitals increased in size and had an unaesthetic appearance. One way or another, but the most extreme type of "operation" carried out in large quantities to this day, it is called "Pharaoh's circumcision."

Curiously, many centuries later, in the 19th century, cases of removal of female external genitalia were recorded in England and the United States. It was believed that such a procedure would help get rid of various psychological symptoms as well as from masturbation and nymphomania. David Gollagher mentions in his book that surgeons Victorian era relied on the now debunked theory that neurological disorders (depression and neurasthenia) are caused by inflammation of the genitals.

Currently, the concept of female circumcision is divided into several types, and those, in turn, subtypes, based on the number and nature of the damage. Detailed classification can be read on Wikipedia. The bottom line is that there is female circumcision, which can be regarded as a plastic surgery of the genitals, increasing pleasant sensations during sexual intercourse. There is circumcision, relatively speaking, of "moderate severity", if one can say so at all. This is the removal of one of the external genital organs of a woman - the clitoris or labia, or both. The third group - infibulation or the same "pharaoh circumcision" - these are "operations" in which either the labia minora or the large ones are cut off, then the wound surfaces close (when suturing or tying the legs), closing the clitoris, urethra and the entrance to the vagina. A small hole is left.

DISTRIBUTION AND LEGAL STATUS OF FEMALE CUTTING

More than 100 million women worldwide are living with the consequences of traumatic circumcision. Mainly in Egypt, Sudan, Ethiopia, Eritrea, Djibouti, Somalia and Mali (according to some sources, more than 80% of women undergo this procedure), as well as in Saudi Arabia and Indonesia. In smaller quantities, but still common in Asia: the Philippines, Malaysia, Pakistan and Indonesia. Also sometimes practiced in United Arab Emirates, Yemen, Oman and Bahrain. V Latin America FGM occurs in Brazil, eastern Mexico and Peru.

The international community has officially come out against female genital mutilation quite recently - six months ago, on November 28, 2012, the UN adopted a relevant resolution. In Europe, Sweden and England were the first to declare war on the barbaric custom in 1985. In the United States, traumatic circumcision was made illegal in 1997. Since then, many countries have followed suit, including Asian and African states. However, the custom turned out to be so tenacious that the population continues to stubbornly follow it, despite constant explanations on this matter and even the threat of prison terms. Because the practice is illegal, many doctors refuse to do it in medical offices. And then various shaman women, healers and simply "wise with life" old women take up the case, wielding scissors, knives and everything that comes to hand, without any anesthesia.

In Egypt, female circumcision was officially banned in 2008, the then first lady actively fought against it. Suzanne Mubarak, calling him "a scandalous example of prolonged physical and psychological abuse over children that must stop. ”(quoted in The Huffington Post). De jure, for performing the ritual, a prison term is imposed (with the deprivation of a medical license if the procedure was performed by a doctor), de facto, many doctors continue to circumcise illegally, for a double bribe. If the family has no money, then they go to the healer. In general, this law is observed in Egypt about the same as in the world. church prohibition Dads to have abortions.

WHY DO EGYPTIAN WOMEN VOLUNTELY CIRCUIT THEIR DAUGHTERS?

Coptic Orthodox Church and the chief mufti of Egypt supported the enactment of a law prohibiting the cruel practice. However, there is still no full agreement on the status of female circumcision in Islam. Many sheikhs and imams insist that female circumcision is desirable, or at least not prohibited by religion. In this regard, the interview of the Sheikh of the Islamic University is indicative. Al-Azhar Mahmud Ashhur to the journalist of the Egyptian TV channel, which I am translating here:

Sheikh: The entire history of Islamic jurisprudence over 14 centuries shows that it was agreed that circumcision was permissible. There are the hadiths of al-Bukhari and al-Muslim that support female circumcision. The Prophet said, "If a circumcised man and woman have intercourse, they must take ablution." There is such a curse as "the son of an uncircumcised woman." Criticism of female genital mutilation is illogical and unnatural….

Journalist: What is the purpose of female circumcision?

Sheikh:… First of all, the remarks that operations are carried out with dirty instruments have nothing to do with religious precepts. Should dentists not sterilize their instruments, should we end up with dental treatment? Claims that female circumcision leads to infertility are false. Muslim woman carries more children than any other in the world. This Western woman is sterile despite not being circumcised. They say that circumcision leads to nervous breakdowns, but on the contrary, this is a holiday for the whole family ...

Journalist: A holiday for the whole family ?! Let me start with the physiological consequences. According to some studies, while there is a holiday, and sweets are brought to the girl, at the same time the act is performed ... of cutting off a piece of flesh. Firstly, after that she loses trust in the family, and secondly, difficulties arise with childbirth, such as breaks, the ingress of microbes ...

Sheikh: In these cases, of course, sterilization of the instruments is necessary. How many body parts are cut off during plastic surgery? So far, no one has begun to view this as an attempt on women….

Journalist: Is this a requirement of religion?

Sheikh: No.

Journalist: What is the main reason after all?

Sheikh: Some sources say, "Cut off, but don't remove." In other words, this does not mean the removal of the organ, but it does not mean that it should be left as it is. The decision is made by a trustworthy Muslim doctor. She decides if the girl needs it.

Journalist: Why can a girl need this?

Sheikh: If it is left to the discretion of the doctor, then it is a custom and not a part of religion. Female circumcision is no longer legal, just because it was practiced during the time of the pharaohs. Islam allowed those ancient customs that were organic, and forbade those that were directed against human nature.

Journalist: 95 percent of Egyptian prostitutes are circumcised.

Sheikh: And 100 percent of Western prostitutes - no.

MUSLIMS OF RUSSIA - FOR "HUMANE" CIRCUMCISION AND WOMEN'S PLEASURE

As we can see, the main snag, which the clergy cannot decide on in any way, is how much, properly speaking, needs to be cut off. And why should the sheikhs indulge in scrupulous discussions about the genitals? This is an intimate, intrafamilial, delicate matter ... If you engage in enlightenment and raise the topic in sermons, then, come on, the word "clitoris" will have to be repeated a hundred times a day ... Of course, this will never happen in Egypt. People live like that, almost no one complains.

But the Muslims of Russia seem to have solved this dilemma for themselves: they don’t deny the godly practice, and, in their opinion, they don’t injure a woman (which, by the way, is strictly prohibited by Islam). Here is what is said about this on the website islamdag.ru: “In favor of female circumcision, the fact that such an operation is considered fashionable in France, because after it a woman achieves satisfaction faster. In Islam, female circumcision is mandatory, according to the madhhab of the imams al-Shafi'i and Ahmad (...) It should be noted that some people who perform this operation do it incorrectly and injure a person by cutting off the clitoris or part of it. In fact, a small part should be cut off, which is at the very top of the female genitals. (…) Circumcision is the removal of a small piece of skin, the so-called "hood" that covers the clitoris. In essence, it is similar to male circumcision. Not every woman can boast of having an orgasm. Dissatisfied women become irritable, hysterical, aggressive. But it turns out that it is enough to do a simple operation to get an orgasm! (...) The Hadith of the Prophet (peace and blessings be upon him) reads: "Correct circumcision of a woman makes her face beautiful." (…). Abu-Hurayra narrates that the Prophet Muhammad (peace and blessings be upon him) said: “O women of the Ansars, circumcise, but do not exaggerate in circumcision -“ cut a small part ”.

I have found similar articles on many Islamic sites, for example, islamreligion.com, with detailed instructions how the “correct” female circumcision should be performed. Obviously, this is not the "Egyptian way". After all, there "operations" are performed for completely different reasons, and their purpose is to deprive a woman of pleasure, and not to increase it. Besides, if it were exclusively a part of Islam, why would Christians decide to mutilate the genitals of children?

THE RESULTS OF THE FIGHT AGAINST FEMALE CUTTING CAN BE BURIED BY ISLAMISTS

Although the topic of female circumcision is not discussed in the Egyptian media, some publications and discussions do happen. The Egyptian Society of Obstetricians and Gynecologists regularly opposes. Various public organizations are engaged in educational work, including in the provinces. In addition, the general level of education of women is growing. All this is slowly but surely yielding results. The new generation of young mothers are no longer as zealous as the previous one. From 2005 to 2008, according to the Egypt Independent, the number of girls who suffered genital trauma dropped from 77% to 74%, and young mothers who wish to circumcise their daughters in the future fell from 41% to 33%. The problem is that the older generation women who have undergone circumcision and faithful to tradition put pressure on the young.

Another reason why getting rid of the remnants is hampered is the lack of political will to ban, and in some cases, the support of female genital mutilation by Islamist politicians. “Islamists are the enemy of everything related to the previous regime,” explains Egyptian women's rights activist. Nevin Ebeid“We are striving to ensure that the observance of women's rights is seen as a requirement of society, and not just a whim of the previous government”. According to the human rights activist, Mursi and the team, already in a precarious position, would rather be in favor of maintaining the status quo, instead of fighting the ritual, irritating the population.

Recently, a scandal even erupted in Egypt: mobile medical stations were seen in the provinces, among other things, offering "everyone" to go through a free procedure for female genital mutilation. The buses were marked with the emblems of the "Party of Freedom and Justice", however, its representative later commented to the press - they say, the villagers did not see it and made a mistake ... Activists are afraid that the results of the struggle will be leveled with the connivance (or support) ruling regime... Female circumcision is just one of the human rights issues that are increasingly becoming an empty phrase in the land of the pyramids.

Like many centuries ago, the busiest place in the city in the early morning is the market. Under wooden sheds covered with mats, there are slides of apples, oranges, lemons, indispensable greens, without which no Syrian meal can do. The buyers are mostly men. It's theirs family responsibility... The wife at home is busy taking care of the numerous offspring, and the husband walks around the market rows with a bag in his hand, with concentration and calmness asking the price, clicks his tongue disapprovingly, feeling the goods, and all this slowly, with knowledge of the matter and with a certain pleasure.

As the sun sets, the city is empty. He falls asleep early. Only street lamps and shops are shining, where, even at late hours, trade is conducted, calculated for arriving sailors. It is hard to believe that the embankment just an hour ago was crowded with a crowd of walking people - whole families, flocks of pretty girls and separately groups of young men. If a girl and a boy go together, then they are certainly engaged. The young man looks at the girl whom he liked only from afar, he has no right to turn to her, and even more so to walk along the embankment together. Parents often choose brides and grooms for their children, and they humbly agree. And often the bride and groom meet for the first time at their wedding. Divorce in Latakia is extremely rare.

Everything is interesting in Latakia - its history, and monuments of the past, and traditions, and the life of today. And everyone should visit this city.

11.3. Aleppo.

Throughout its history, Aleppo observed a huge number of tragedies, was the scene of many cruel clashes, devastating raids of ancient peoples. Moaning and crying accompanied the crowds of those taken into slavery. The walls of the ancient citadel could tell many stories about the courage of the inhabitants of the city. In the period from X to XV alone, dozens of raids on the city were made. But the city continued to live, resisting not only the conquerors, but also the earthquakes that left their marks on it.

The life of Syria through the centuries is reflected in the Aleppo Museum. It is located in the city center, in a bright house surrounded by small garden... The fate of this building is symbolic. It was built during the French Mandate and was intended for the city council. However, political events have changed a lot. The city was ruled by the Syrians, and the building was transferred to the museum by the decision of the national city council.

At the entrance to the museum, 3 huge figures of gray stone support the portico. This is a triad from the ancient Aramaic city of Guzan - statues of two gods and a goddess. The massive feet of the gods trample the backs of animals. The composition is extremely expressive. The mouths of the lions are grinning viciously, their eyes sparkling, the bull's horns are threateningly thrust forward. Disproportionately large, with bright whites and black obsidianon pupils, the eyes of the gods make a lasting impression. Antiquity itself looks at us with these mystical eyes. Once upon a time, sculptures supported the portico of the palace of the Aramaic ruler. The cuneiform text is engraved on the dress of the female deity Ishtar: “This is Kapar's palace. My grandfather and father died and became immortal, but they could not do what I did. If anyone erases my name to put his own, then let his seven sons be burned before Haddad (the main god of Guzana) ".

From the gates of the museum, you can walk to the walls of the citadel, from which you can see the whole of Aleppo - a gray-yellow city, with arrows of minarets, domes of mosques, multi-storey modern houses, here styles of eras are fancifully mixed.

Aleppo has the world's longest covered market, which has hardly changed over the centuries. Until now, in this huge market, there is a corporate system for the sale of spices, textiles, ropes, tents and other things. What you can not find here! In the golden rows you will be offered rings and earrings - old and the latest models, chased belts, temple jewelry. The overhanging thick vaults create a special atmosphere. It is cool in summer, warm and dry in winter. The market stalls have not been rebuilt at all since the 15th century. And these shops look really peculiar. The narrow and long openings of the entrances are framed by wooden doors with colored patterns painted on them. To the side lies a huge castle, whose place has long been in the museum. The feeling of returning to the deep Middle Ages is complemented by the view of the massive Khan's gate - an old caravanserai on the territory of the market. The vast courtyard, where the loaded camels once stood, is empty. The galleries that surround the courtyard on four sides have boarded up windows. Now there are warehouses.

Not far from the market are the ancient gates of the city. There are many mosques and madrasahs here. Beautiful portal decorated with stone carvings. This is the Sharafiya madrasah, built in 1242. Now this building houses a library, known for that stores rare manuscripts. On gray stones patio white squares. One small - in the center, another larger, borders the first.

Among the numerous mosques, a special place is occupied by the Umayyad Great Mosque, which arose on the territory of a Christian temple, which in turn was built on the site of a pagan one, which is very typical for Syria. A slender square minaret rises above the mosque, which is still considered the best in the city. The mihrab of the mosque is decorated with an expensive wood inlaid with ivory.

Aleppo is the center of vast agricultural areas. Therefore, it is here that numerous enterprises are concentrated for the processing of olives, sugar beets, the production of juices, butter and cheese. The Halleb brewery is known throughout the country, producing beer "Ash-Shark". The tractor plant is very popular, the products of which can be seen in the fields of the country.

Aleppo is widely known for its cultural traditions... Many artists and composers, poets and writers came from this city. Concerts by the young composer, musician and singer Abed Azri are invariably attracting attention. This talented singer, with a beautiful and strong voice, has transposed to music several texts from the ancient epic poem about Gilgamesh, some of the Sufi poems, modern poems of Syrian, Lebanese and Iraqi poets. Abed Azri's music always relies on best samples Arabic poetry. And if poetry remains purely national, then music, in his opinion, should change and correspond to the spirit of the times: “We should not go back and use only our traditions. We must develop national music and, by developing, bring it closer to life ”. This is the artistic credo of Abed Azri.

12. What's interesting?

12.1 Krak de Chevalle - the castle of the knights.

Syria is the only country in the east that has preserved Crusader castles. They rise on the coast and in the mountains, presenting a kind of architecture, being the monuments of the distant troubling time of battles and the religious fanaticism of the famous crusades.

Approaching the castle Krak des Chevaliers, you forget for a moment that you are living in the XX century. A narrow drawbridge, iron gates, numerous passages, towers make you forget reality. It seems that you are about to hear the sound of horse hooves, the clink of swords and the voices of knights.